In recent years, NMN has become an increasingly familiar name in the world of supplements and healthy ageing research.
Once you start looking into NMN, however, several other terms quickly appear:
NAD+, mitochondria, PQQ and ageing biology.
“What exactly is NMN?”
“How is it different from NAD+?”
“Why is PQQ sometimes combined with NMN?”
The terminology can seem complicated at first, but once the pieces are separated, the science becomes much easier to understand.
NMN (nicotinamide mononucleotide) is a naturally occurring molecule that is involved in the production of NAD+ in the body.
PQQ (pyrroloquinoline quinone), on the other hand, is a different compound that has been studied in areas including redox reactions, mitochondria and cognitive function.
More recently, researchers have also begun looking at NMN and PQQ used together in human studies.
In this article, we explain the basic relationship between NMN, NAD+, PQQ and mitochondria, what is currently being studied in humans, what is known about safety, and what to look for when comparing supplements based on research available in 2026.
The research discussed below is presented as general information about NMN and PQQ as ingredients.
It should be considered separately from the formulation and specifications of any individual commercial product.
Contents
- What Is NMN? Understanding Its Relationship with NAD+
- What Does NAD+ Do in the Body?
- What Has Human Research on NMN Found?
- What Is PQQ?
- PQQ, Mitochondria and Cognitive Research
- Why Combine NMN and PQQ?
- What to Look for in an NMN + PQQ Supplement
- What to Know About Safety
- Common Questions About NMN and PQQ
What Is NMN? Understanding Its Relationship with NAD+
NMN stands for Nicotinamide Mononucleotide.
The “nicotinamide” in its name refers to a compound related to vitamin B3.
Although the word looks similar to “nicotine”, the two are chemically different substances.
The key to understanding NMN is its relationship with NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide).
In the body, NAD+ can be produced through several pathways, including one that can be simplified as:
Nicotinamide and related compounds
↓
NMN
↓
NAD+
In other words, NMN is one of the precursors the body can use to produce NAD+.
How Are NMN and NAD+ Related?
NMN and NAD+ are different molecules with different roles.
A simple way to think about it is that NMN is one of the materials used along the pathway that leads to NAD+, while NAD+ is then used in a wide range of cellular reactions.
This relationship is one of the main reasons NMN has attracted so much scientific interest.
Quick Fact | What Does the “β” in β-NMN Mean?
NMN can exist in different structural forms, including alpha and beta forms.
The form predominantly used in biological research and human clinical studies is β-NMN.
That is why supplement labels often specifically state “β-NMN”.
It may look like a small detail, but the “β” is worth noticing when comparing NMN ingredients.
What Does NAD+ Do in the Body?
NAD+ is a coenzyme involved in many essential processes inside our cells.
One of its best-known roles is in the process of converting nutrients from food into usable cellular energy.
As carbohydrates and fats are broken down and processed, many chemical reactions take place in sequence.
NAD+ and NADH help transfer electrons during these reactions and play an important part in energy metabolism.
NAD+ is also used by enzymes such as sirtuins and PARPs, which are involved in a variety of cellular processes.
For this reason, researchers are increasingly interested in how NAD+ metabolism relates to ageing and different physiological states.
NAD+ Is Part of the Energy System, Rather Than “Energy” Itself
NAD+ is sometimes described in health articles as “cellular energy” or “fuel for youth”.
A more accurate description is that NAD+ is a coenzyme that supports many chemical reactions involved in energy metabolism.
It is not energy in the same way that calories or ATP are.
Instead, it helps the cellular machinery that processes energy to function.
Quick Fact | NAD+ Research Goes Back More Than 100 Years
NAD+ may sound like a very modern area of science, but its history reaches back to 1906.
British researchers Arthur Harden and William John Young, while studying fermentation in yeast, described a heat-stable substance required for fermentation.
That work eventually contributed to the discovery and understanding of what we now know as NAD.
More than a century later, NAD research has expanded from energy metabolism into areas including sirtuins, DNA repair and cellular signalling.
NMN may be a relatively recent name in the supplement world, but the NAD+ research behind it has a scientific history stretching back more than 100 years.
Age and NAD+ Are Also Being Studied
Research in animals and human tissues suggests that NAD+ metabolism is associated with age, metabolic state and other physiological factors.
NAD+ levels and metabolism can also differ between blood, muscle and various organs.
For that reason, researchers increasingly look at where and how NAD+ changes throughout the body.
This has also increased interest in NAD+ precursors such as NMN and NR.
What Has Human Research on NMN Found?
NMN research began largely with cell and animal studies, but randomised controlled trials in humans have become more common.
Research has expanded from NAD-related biomarkers into areas such as physical function, sleep and metabolism.
NAD+-Related Markers Are One of the Most Consistently Studied Areas
One recurring theme in clinical research is the effect of oral NMN on blood NAD+ and related metabolites.
For example, a 60-day randomised double-blind trial involving 80 healthy middle-aged adults evaluated daily NMN doses of 300 mg, 600 mg and 900 mg.
The study assessed changes in blood NAD concentrations as well as physical-function measures such as the six-minute walk test.
Other research in older adults has examined 250 mg of NMN per day for 12 weeks, looking at NAD+-related markers together with outcomes including walking and sleep.
Research Has Expanded into Sleep and Physical Function
Clinical trials in older Japanese adults have studied NMN at 250 mg per day for 12 weeks and evaluated measures including sleep, fatigue and physical function.
Other studies have also examined blood NAD+-related metabolites alongside measures involving walking and sleep.
This shows how NMN research is expanding from biochemical markers such as NAD+ into areas that are closer to everyday function.
Metabolic Research in Specific Populations
In 2021, a clinical trial studied 250 mg of NMN per day for 10 weeks in postmenopausal women with prediabetes who were overweight or obese.
Researchers examined skeletal-muscle insulin sensitivity and other metabolic measures, with changes reported in some outcomes.
When reading studies like this, it is useful to consider the participants’ age, sex, health status, dosage and study duration rather than applying the findings to every population.
A 2026 Review Combined 15 Randomised Controlled Trials
In 2026, a systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated 15 randomised controlled trials of oral NMN in adults.
Across the included studies, doses ranged from 250 to 2,000 mg per day and study durations ranged from 14 days to 24 weeks.
Among studies included in the safety analysis, short-term NMN use was not associated with a clear increase in overall adverse events, serious adverse events, discontinuations due to adverse events, or liver-related markers such as ALT and AST compared with control groups.
For outcomes such as body weight, BMI, fasting glucose, HbA1c and blood lipids, pooled results did not show broad and consistent changes across the studies.
A simple way to describe the current state of NMN research is:
NMN is consumed
↓
Changes in NAD+-related markers are studied
↓
Researchers continue investigating how these changes relate to physical function, sleep, metabolism and ageing
An important distinction is therefore between changes in NAD+-related biomarkers and long-term health outcomes.
What Is PQQ?
Another ingredient sometimes combined with NMN is PQQ.
PQQ stands for Pyrroloquinoline Quinone.
It is a quinone compound studied in relation to redox reactions, mitochondria and cellular signalling.
How Is PQQ Classified?
PQQ is sometimes described as a “vitamin-like” substance.
It is not currently classified as an essential human vitamin.
Instead, it is studied as a bioactive compound involved in redox chemistry and cellular signalling.
In bacteria, PQQ is well known as a cofactor for certain enzymes.
Quick Fact | The Structure of PQQ Was Identified in 1979
PQQ was originally investigated as an unknown enzyme-related cofactor in bacteria, and its distinctive chemical structure was reported in 1979.
Research later expanded from redox chemistry into areas involving mitochondria and cell signalling.
PQQ Has Also Been Detected Naturally in Foods
PQQ is not found only in supplements.
Small amounts have been detected in a variety of foods.
These include potatoes, spinach, parsley, green peppers, natto, tofu, miso, milk and eggs.
The amounts found naturally in food are much lower than the amounts commonly used in supplements, but it is interesting that PQQ is also present in everyday foods.
What Are Mitochondria?
Mitochondria are small structures found inside most of our cells.
One of their most important roles is helping produce ATP, the form of energy used by cells.
For that reason, mitochondria are often described as the “powerhouses of the cell”.
They are studied in areas including exercise, muscle, brain function, energy metabolism and ageing, and PQQ has become one of the compounds investigated within this broader field.
PQQ, Mitochondria and Cognitive Research
Much of the research on PQQ has involved cell and animal models, particularly in relation to cellular signalling associated with mitochondrial formation and function.
Human studies have also been conducted.
Human Studies on Cognitive Function
A randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trial in Japan gave healthy middle-aged and older adults 20 mg per day of PQQ disodium salt for 12 weeks.
Researchers evaluated measures including memory, attention, judgement and cognitive flexibility.
The study examined group differences in areas including composite memory, verbal memory, reaction time and complex attention.
Another 12-week study using 20 mg of PQQ per day in adults aged 20 to 65 also assessed memory and cognition across different age groups.
Human research on PQQ is still developing.
Larger studies involving broader populations and independent research groups should help clarify which outcomes are most consistent.
Exercise and Mitochondrial-Related Signalling
Research in untrained men has also examined PQQ supplementation alongside endurance training.
The studies evaluated exercise-related outcomes together with proteins involved in mitochondrial biology, including PGC-1α, an important regulator associated with mitochondrial biogenesis.
This illustrates how PQQ is being studied not simply through a single “performance” outcome, but also through cellular signalling and mitochondrial biology during exercise.
Why Combine NMN and PQQ?
The reason NMN and PQQ are sometimes combined in supplements is that they originate from different areas of research.
In very simple terms:
NMN → research relating to pathways that produce NAD+
PQQ → research involving mitochondria, redox biology and cellular signalling
From a formulation perspective, this creates an approach that combines one ingredient associated with NAD+ nutrition research and another associated with mitochondrial research.
In 2026, a Human Study Used NMN and PQQ Together
A randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trial published in 2026 investigated NMN and PQQ taken together.
Sixty young men were divided into four groups:
- placebo
- PQQ 20 mg
- NMN 300 mg
- NMN 300 mg + PQQ 20 mg
Participants took a single dose 60 minutes before an exhaustive exercise session.
The primary area of interest was interoception — the ability to perceive and interpret signals from within the body following exercise.
The study examined differences between the groups, including the combination group.
Clear group differences in exercise performance were not demonstrated, so the possibility of synergistic effects from combining NMN and PQQ remains an area for further research.
What is interesting is that the NMN + PQQ combination has now moved beyond supplement formulation and has begun to appear in human clinical research.
This particular study involved a single pre-exercise dose in young men using specific research materials.
Its findings should therefore be considered separately from commercial product specifications and long-term daily supplementation.
Future studies involving longer supplementation periods, different age groups and both men and women may provide a clearer picture of this combination.
What to Look for in an NMN + PQQ Supplement
NMN and PQQ products can differ considerably in dosage, labelling and ingredient specifications.
A useful first step is to separate the total amount in the bottle from the amount provided per capsule or serving.
What Does “27,000 mg” Mean?
Our NMN + PQQ Ultimate 27,000 mg contains 90 capsules, with each capsule providing:
The “27,000 mg” in the product name refers to:
300 mg of β-NMN × 90 capsules = 27,000 mg of β-NMN per bottle.
When comparing supplements, it is useful to distinguish between:
the total amount per bottle,
the amount per capsule,
and the amount provided by the suggested serving.
Looking at these separately makes product labels much easier to understand.
What Should You Compare in an NMN Product?
Useful points to check include:
- whether β-NMN is used
- the amount per capsule or suggested serving
- whether purity and raw-material specifications are clearly stated
- whether the manufacturer and country of manufacture are identified
- whether quality-control information is available
For PQQ, it is also worth checking which form of PQQ is used and how much is included per capsule or serving.
The clinical studies described in this article used specific research materials and study conditions.
A useful approach is to view research as information about what is being studied, while product labels tell you what is actually contained in a particular supplement.
For Those Interested in Adding NMN and PQQ to a Daily Routine
After learning how NMN and PQQ differ, some people may prefer a formulation that provides both β-NMN and PQQ in a single capsule.
Our NMN + PQQ Ultimate 27,000 mg is a New Zealand-made supplement containing 300 mg of β-NMN and 20 mg of PQQ per capsule, with 90 capsules per bottle.
Rather than requiring separate NMN and PQQ products, it provides both ingredients in one straightforward formulation.
For those who prefer to understand the ingredients first and then compare dosage, raw materials, manufacturing background and ease of daily use, it offers one option to consider.
What to Know About Safety
Human NMN Studies Have Also Evaluated Safety
Several short-term human clinical trials have assessed the safety and tolerability of NMN.
One study involving 31 healthy men and women evaluated β-NMN at 1,250 mg per day for four weeks and monitored blood tests, urine tests and physical measurements.
No serious adverse events were reported during the study period, and the supplement was reported to be well tolerated.
Safety has also been evaluated in studies using 300–900 mg per day for 60 days and approximately 250 mg per day over several months.
A 2026 Review Combined Safety Data from Randomised Trials
A 2026 systematic review and meta-analysis included 15 randomised controlled trials, with 10 contributing to the safety analysis.
NMN doses ranged from 250 to 2,000 mg per day and study durations ranged from 14 days to 24 weeks.
The pooled analysis did not identify a clear increase in overall adverse events, serious adverse events, treatment discontinuations due to adverse events, or liver-related markers such as ALT and AST compared with control groups during the short-term studies.
Most human trials have lasted weeks to several months, so long-term use remains an area in which more evidence will continue to accumulate.
In 2026, EFSA Evaluated a Specific β-NMN Ingredient
In 2026, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) published a Novel Food safety assessment of a specific β-NMN ingredient.
The ingredient assessed was a chemically synthesised β-NMN preparation with a purity of at least 99%.
EFSA evaluated use at up to 300 mg per day in adults, excluding pregnant and breastfeeding women, and concluded that the specific ingredient was safe under the proposed conditions of use.
The assessment also considered the availability of nicotinamide from β-NMN as a source of niacin.
Importantly, the EFSA conclusion applies to the specific β-NMN ingredient and manufacturing specification submitted for assessment.
When evaluating a commercial NMN supplement, it is therefore useful to consider the actual raw-material specifications and quality controls rather than relying on dosage alone.
PQQ Has Also Been Evaluated by EFSA
EFSA has separately assessed a specific PQQ disodium salt ingredient.
The evaluated material was manufactured by fermentation and produced according to defined purity and compositional specifications.
Its proposed use in food supplements for healthy adults was assessed at 20 mg per day.
EFSA concluded that the specific ingredient was safe under the proposed conditions of use.
Pregnant and breastfeeding women were excluded from the intended population.
As with NMN, PQQ ingredients may vary by production method and specification, so dosage, raw material and quality control are all worth checking.
Pregnancy, Breastfeeding, Medication and Medical Conditions
Human data on NMN and PQQ during pregnancy and breastfeeding remain limited.
People who are pregnant or breastfeeding, have a medical condition, are receiving treatment, or take prescription medication should speak with a doctor, pharmacist or other qualified healthcare professional before use.
Follow the serving directions and safety information provided with the product.
If you notice an unusual change in your health after starting a supplement, stop using it and seek appropriate advice if needed.
Common Questions About NMN and PQQ
Why Is NMN Sometimes Called an “Anti-Ageing” or “Rejuvenation” Ingredient?
Much of the early attention around NMN came from ageing-biology research involving NAD+.
Cell and animal studies have explored relationships between NAD+ metabolism and biological changes associated with ageing.
Because NMN is a precursor used in NAD+ production, it became closely associated in the media and supplement market with terms such as “anti-ageing” and “rejuvenation”.
In human studies today, researchers are examining NAD+-related markers along with areas such as physical function, sleep and metabolism.
A more useful way to understand NMN is therefore as an ingredient that attracted attention through research on NAD+ and the biology of ageing.
Human lifespan and long-term age-related outcomes remain important areas for future long-term research.
How Is PQQ Different from CoQ10?
PQQ and CoQ10 (coenzyme Q10) are chemically different substances with different biological roles.
Both are often discussed in relation to mitochondria and energy metabolism, but they are studied through different mechanisms.
CoQ10 is well known for its role in the mitochondrial electron transport chain.
PQQ is studied more broadly in areas involving redox chemistry and signalling associated with mitochondrial biology.
Should NMN and PQQ Be Taken in the Morning or at Night?
Clinical studies of NMN and PQQ have used a variety of dosing times and study designs.
At present, there is no single universally established time of day that applies to everyone.
For practical use, follow the serving directions on the product label and choose a routine that is easy to maintain consistently.
Are NMN and PQQ Only for Men?
Human NMN research has included both men and women, including clinical trials conducted specifically in postmenopausal women.
PQQ has also been studied in healthy adult men and women.
NMN and PQQ are therefore being studied across a broad range of adult populations that include both sexes.
Summary | Understanding NMN + PQQ Through Biology and Current Research
NMN and PQQ are both increasingly discussed in the supplement world, but they come from different areas of research.
NMN is a precursor involved in pathways that produce NAD+.
PQQ is a compound studied in relation to mitochondria, redox biology and cellular signalling.
Human NMN research has generated growing data on NAD+-related markers, while studies have also expanded into areas such as physical function, sleep and metabolism.
In 2026, an analysis combining 15 randomised controlled trials added further information about short-term safety.
PQQ has also been investigated in human studies involving cognition, exercise and markers related to mitochondrial biology.
In addition, a 2026 human trial used 300 mg of NMN together with 20 mg of PQQ, meaning the NMN + PQQ combination itself has begun to enter clinical research.
What makes NMN and PQQ interesting is not simply that they are fashionable supplement ingredients.
What exactly is NMN?
What does NAD+ do in the body?
Why is PQQ studied in mitochondrial research?
What ingredients and amounts are actually contained in each capsule?
Once you understand these basics, the numbers and terminology on supplement labels become much easier to interpret.
NAD+ has more than a century of scientific history behind it.
NMN has attracted attention as one of its precursors.
PQQ, whose chemical structure was established in 1979, has developed into another area of research involving mitochondrial biology and cell signalling.
For people who understand these differences and would like to include both ingredients in a daily supplement routine, a single-capsule formulation containing β-NMN and PQQ may offer a straightforward option.
Our NMN + PQQ Ultimate 27,000 mg is made in New Zealand and provides 300 mg of β-NMN plus 20 mg of PQQ per capsule, with 90 capsules per bottle.
By looking at the current research alongside ingredient specifications, dosage, manufacturing background, quality control and everyday practicality, it becomes easier to make an informed supplement choice.
Important Note
This article is intended to provide general information about NMN (nicotinamide mononucleotide), NAD+ and PQQ (pyrroloquinoline quinone), including their basic biology and published research.
The research findings discussed are based on specific study materials, dosages, durations and participant groups and should not be assumed to apply equally to individual commercial products.
This article and dietary supplements are not intended to diagnose, treat or prevent disease, nor to provide rejuvenation or life-extension effects.
For questions about your personal health, please consult a doctor, pharmacist or other qualified healthcare professional.
References
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Yang W, et al. Safety and Metabolism-Related Outcomes of Oral Nicotinamide Mononucleotide Supplementation in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients, 2026;18(14):2251. DOI: 10.3390/nu18142251
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The efficacy and safety of β-nicotinamide mononucleotide supplementation in healthy middle-aged adults: a randomized, multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. 2022. PMID: 36482258
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Safety evaluation of β-nicotinamide mononucleotide oral administration in healthy adult men and women. 2022. PMID: 36002548
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Ingestion of β-nicotinamide mononucleotide increased blood NAD levels, maintained walking speed, and evaluated sleep-related outcomes in older adults. PMID: 38789831
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Effects of Pyrroloquinoline Quinone Supplementation on Aerobic Exercise Performance and Indices of Mitochondrial Biogenesis in Untrained Men. PMID: 31860387
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EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies. Safety of pyrroloquinoline quinone disodium salt as a novel food. EFSA Journal, 2017. DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.5058
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Zhao C, et al. The effects of pyrroloquinoline quinone and nicotinamide mononucleotide supplementation on interoception following acute exhaustive exercise: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Scientific Reports, 2026.
